Sunday, January 21, 2018

Transparency and the world economy

I believe transparency is an important goal for every branch of knowledge. The goal of every scientist and researcher should be to shine light onto previously dark and unknown phenomena. The universe is complex and the goal of research is to make order out of it.

Econfactbook.org is an economic data website that attempts to bring greater transparency to the world economy. This website was launched in 2015 and the format was originally proposed in 2013 as a sister project for the Wikimedia Foundation.

Macroeconomic data websites like World Bank Indicators and FRED have a large amount of economic statistics, but I believe they could do a better job at illustrating an economy in a concise, readable format. The format of Econ Factbook is designed to eliminate excess statistics and only display the structure of an economy. By focusing on the structure, I believe it can help people better understand an economy.

The format of Econ Factbook is based on the circular flow model (diagram below). The format has a section for each of the five main economic sectors: households, companies, government, banks and the central bank. Each section has a few statistics to illustrate the condition of that sector. In addition to these five sections, the format has a section for employment, industries and international accounts.


What can Econ Factbook be used for? I believe it would be difficult to analyze an intricate economic issue with this website. Instead, I think this question can be best answered by analogy with a globe. Nobody says a globe is useless due to its lack of direct practicality. It's meant to be an educational tool to help people to better understand our home planet. I believe that the same idea applies to Econ Factbook.

Econ Factbook currently has a page for all 193 UN member countries. I hope that someday every city and state in the world could also have their own page using this format. Presently, economic data about localities is difficult to find on the internet and I believe centralizing this data in a clear format would be useful.

I will conclude this post with a list statistics to show the complete format.

Basic statistics
Population
GDP
GDP growth rate
GDP per capita (nominal)
GPD per capital (PPP)

Regions
Table of largest regions ranked by GDP along with population, GDP per capita and GDP growth rate

Industries
Table of GDP by industry

Employment
Unemployment rate
Table of employment by industry

Companies
Table of the largest companies ranked by revenue along with their profit and assets

Households
Total household assets
Total household debt
Household wealth per capita
Gini index

Government
Central government total revenue and expenditure
Central government total debt
Central government 10 year bond rate
State and local government revenue and expenditure
State and local government debt
List of public funds and assets
Personal income tax rates and thresholds
Corporate tax rate
Table of central government revenue by source
Table of central government expenditures

Central bank
Money supply (M0)
Benchmark interest rate
Total reserves
Exchange rate
Inflation rate

Banks
Table of the largest banks ranked by assets along with their revenue and profits

International accounts
Exports
Imports
Trade balance
Foreign direct investment inflow
Foreign direct investment outflow
Foreign aid inflow
Foreign aid outflow


License: CC BY-SA 4.0

Saturday, December 23, 2017

Fundamentals of fiscal policy

This post is a list of quotes outlining my beliefs about fiscal policy. There are 29 quotes divided into 7 sections:

A. Government finance should be audited to ensure money is spent efficiently (3)
B. We should invest in building a strong middle class (5)
C. We should support our most vulnerable citizens (4)
D. Single-payer healthcare is the best healthcare solution (5)
E. We should accelerate innovation in critical technologies (4)
F. Foreign aid is an effective foreign policy (5)
G. Raising taxes on rich individuals will not significantly hurt economic growth (3)

A. Government finance should be audited to ensure money is spent efficiently


Henry George (1839-1897, economist)
1. "To prevent government from being corrupt and tyrannous, its organization and methods should be as simple as possible... and in all its parts it should be kept as close to the people as directly within their control as may be." (Social Problems, 1883)

Louis Brandeis (1856-1941, lawyer)
2. "Publicity is justly commended as a remedy for social and industrial disease. Sunlight is said to be the best of disinfectants; electric light the most efficient policeman." (Other People's Money - And How Bankers Use It, 1914)

James Madison (1751-1836, 4th President of the United States)
3. "If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary." (Federalist No. 51, 1788)

B. We should invest in building a strong middle class


Barack Obama (1961-now, 44th President of the United States):
4. "We don't just want everyone to share in America's success, we want everyone to contribute to our success." (State of the Union Address, 2015)

Barack Obama (1961-now, 44th President of the United States):
5. "In a global economy, a country's greatest resource is its people. So by investing in you, this nation can open the door for far more prosperity - because unlocking a nation's potential depends on empowering all its people, especially it's young people." (Yangon University Speech, 2012)

Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
6. "According to a 2007 report by the Federal Revere Bank of Minneapolis, 'The most efficient means to boost the productivity of the workforce 15 to 20 years down the road is to invest in today's youngest children.'" (Our Revolution, 2016)

Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
7. "Today in America, hundreds of thousands of bright young people who have the desire and the ability to get a college education will not be able to do so because their families lack the money." (Our Revolution, 2016)

Arthur MacEwan (1942-now, economist):
8. "It's not hard to figure out what kinds of jobs should be created with government stimulus spending. Prime examples include environmental repair and preservation, education and training and infrastructure repair and extension." (What Would Full Employment Cost? 2015)

C. We should support our most vulnerable citizens


Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
9. "[A nation] is judged by how well it treats its weakest a most vulnerable citizens. A truly great nation is one that is filled with compassion and solidarity." (Our Revolution, 2016)

Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
10. "When people become old, they often become frail and sick. They are unable to work and earn an income. In a civilized society, the older generation - the people who raised us - are entitled, and allowed, to live out their remaining years in dignity and security." (Our Revolution, 2016)

Hillary Clinton (1947-now, politician):
11. "Look at the budget that was just proposed in Washington. It is an attack of unimaginable cruelty on the most vulnerable among us, the youngest, the oldest, the poorest, and hard working people who need a little help to gain or hang on to a decent middle class life." (Wellesley commencement speech, 2017)

Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
12. "Study after study has shown that without stable housing it is much harder for working people to hold down jobs and get the health care they need, and children are put at a profound disadvantage in terms of intellectual and emotional development and school performance... Decent-quality affordable housing should be a right of all Americans." (Our Revolution, 2016)

D. Single-payer healthcare is the best healthcare solution


Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
13. "The United States must join the rest of the industrialized world and guarantee health care to every man, woman and child through a Medicare for all single-payer system." (Our Revolution, 2016)

American Medical Student Association:
14. "If Americans believe in an inalienable right to life, how can we tolerate a system that denies people lifesaving medications and treatments?" (The Case for Universal Healthcare, 2009)

Commonwealth Fund:
15. "Despite having the most expensive health care system, the United States ranks last overall among 11 industrialized countries on measures of health system quality, efficiency, access to care, equity, and healthy lives...'" (US Health System Ranks Last Among Eleven Countries, 2014)

Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
16. "The United States has thousands of different health insurance plans, all of which set different reimbursement rates across different networks for providers and procedures. This results in extremely high administrative costs." (Our Revolution, 2016)

Robert Frank (journalist):
17. "The most important source of cost savings under single-payer is that large government entities are able to negotiate much more favorable terms with service providers." (Why Single-Payer Health Care Saves Money, 2017)

E. We should accelerate innovation in critical technologies


Bernie Sanders (1941-now, politician):
18. "This is the stuff we do so well when challenged as a nation, whether by putting a man on the moon, eradicating diseases, or developing the Internet. The U.S. can and must dedicate our engineering know-how to a clean energy revolution, in our universities, in our national energy labs, and in businesses and communities all across the country." (Our Revolution, 2016)

Bill Gates (1955-now, businessman):
19. "The only reason I'm optimistic about [renewable energy] is because of innovation... I want to tilt the odds in our favor by driving innovation at an unnaturally high pace, or more than its current business-as-usual course." (We Need an Energy Miracle, 2015)

Bill Nye (1955-now, science communicator):
20. "Desalination of water could be the key to the future for so may of us humans... We could have all the clean water we wanted for everybody all over the world and we would power pumps with solar power..." (Big Think: Can We Desalinate Water for Human Consumption on a Massive Scale? 2016)

Annie Sneed (journalist):
21. "To limit warming, nations will also likely need to physically remove carbon from the atmosphere. And to do that, they will have to deploy 'negative emissions technology' - technologies that scrub CO2 out of the air." (The Search Is on for Pulling Carbon from the Air, 2016)

F. Foreign aid is an effective foreign policy


Tessie San Martin (nonprofit executive):
22. "Without reliable data we have no way of understanding the magnitude of a problem or evaluating whether and how our programming is helping to address it." (Amen to accountability in foreign aid, 2017)

Mala Yousafzai (1997-now, activist):
23. "Why is it that countries which we call 'strong' are so powerful in creating wars but are so weak in bringing peace? Why is it that giving guns is so easy but giving books is so hard? Why is it that making tanks is so easy, but building schools is so hard?" (Nobel Peace Prize Lecture, 2014)

Max Friedman (historian):
24. "Exclusion from economic gains, making individuals believe that elites are not sharing revenue, may also be another significant factor driving extremism." (Why Current Foreign Aid Benefits Terrorists, 2017)

Kofi Annan (1938-now, 7th Secretary-General for the United Nations):
25. "The international community... allows nearly 3 billion people - almost half of all humanity - to subsist on $2 or less a day in a world of unprecedented wealth." (Can Globalization Really Solve Our Problems? 2002)

Jimmy Carter (1924-now, 39th President of the United States):
26. "Human rights is the soul of our foreign policy, because human rights is the very soul of our sense of nationhood." (Remarks on the 30th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1978)

G. Raising taxes on rich individuals will not significantly hurt economic growth


Thomas Hungerford (economist)
27. "The results of the analysis suggest that changes over the past 65 years in the top marginal tax rate and the top capital gains tax rate do not appear correlated with economic growth [in the United States]. The reduction in the top tax rates appears to be uncorrelated with saving, investment, and productivity growth. The top tax rates appear to have little or no relation to the size of the economic pie." (Taxes and the Economy: An Economic Analysis of the Top Tax Rates Since 1945, 2012)

Alana Semuels (journalist):
28. "[In the United States] between 1935 and 1982, the top tax rate did not dip below 70 percent. Part of this was due to a belief among those in charge that government had a role in combating extreme wealth." (Is the U.S. Due for Radically Raising Taxes for the Rich? 2016)

Thomas Hungerford (economist)
29. "The top marginal rate in the 1950s was over 90 percent and the real GDP growth rate averaged 4.2 percent and the real per capita GDP increased annually by 2.4 percent in the 1950s." (Taxes and the Economy: An Economic Analysis of the Top Tax Rates Since 1945, 2012)

Saturday, December 9, 2017

What is science?


Photo source: Wikimedia Commons, Luis MiguelBugallo Sanchez (Lmbuga)
Photo license: CC BY-SA 4.0

What is science? I have two definitions:
1. Science is a method of establishing knowledge through controlled experiments
2. Science is the study of any subject related to physics, chemistry or biology
Below is an explanation of each definition.

1. Science is a method of establishing knowledge through controlled experiments

According to the first definition, there is not a strict boundary between science and non-science because we can never be sure that every confounding variable has been controlled in an experiment. There is always a chance that an unseen variable could affect the experiment. In this regard, science is a subjective concept.

Is economics a science? I believe it depends on the specific study. I think the closest thing we have to controlled experiments in economics are quasi-experimental analyses which look at real world events that resemble controlled experiments. The problem with these studies is that there can be many confounding variables. For this reason, I believe it depends on each specific study for whether or not we can call it science.

2. Science is the study of any subject related to physics, chemistry or biology

The second definition of science has to do with physics, chemistry and biology. If you are studying a subject that involves any of these topics, I believe you are studying science. This definition also corresponds to science education in K-12 schools.

The rest of this post is a list of definitions of science from other philosophers.

Definitions of science from philosophers


Karl Popper (1902-1994)
1. "...statements or systems of statements, in order to be ranked as scientific, must be capable of conflicting with possible, or conceivable observations." (Conjectures and refutations. The growth of scientific knowledge, 1962)

Thomas Kuhn (1902-1996)
2. "...the role in scientific research of what I have since called 'paradigms'. These I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners." (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962)

Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994)
3. "...the separation of science and non-science is not only artificial but also detrimental to the advancement of knowledge. If we want to understand nature, if we want to master our physical surroundings, then we must use all ideas, all methods, and not just a small selection of them." (Against method, 1975)


Larry Laudan (1941-now)
4. "...there is no demarcation line between science and non-science, or between science and pseudo-science, which would win assent from a majority of philosophers. Nor is there one which should win acceptance from philosophers or anyone else." (The Demise of the Demarcation Problem, 1983)


Paul Thagard (1950-now):
5. "A theory of disciplines which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in the relation to others and is selective in considering confirmation and disconfirmation." (Quoted in Science Education by John Gilbert)

William Cecil Dampier (1867-1952)
6. "[Science is] ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and of the relations between them." (Wikipedia: Demarcation problem, 10.4.22 UTC 05:50)

Marshall Clagett (1916-2005)
7. "[Science is] first the orderly and systematic comprehension, description and/or explanation of natural phenomena and secondly, the [mathematical and logical] tools necessary for the undertaking." (Wikipedia: Demarcation problem, 10.4.22 UTC 05:50)

David Pingree (1933-2005)
8. "Science is a systematic explanation of perceived or imaginary phenomena or else is based on such an explanation. Mathematics finds a place in science only as one of the symbolical languages in which scientific explanations may be expressed." (Wikipedia: Demarcation problem, 10.4.22 UTC 05:50)

Sunday, November 12, 2017

Fundamentals of reason

Photo license: CC BY 2.0

This post is a collection of quotes about reason. There are 14 quotes divided into 5 sections:

A. Reasons fit together to support or deny a proposition (2)
B. Sensory experience is the source of all evidence (2)
C. It's impossible to 100% prove or disprove a proposition (except for a few absolute facts) (2)
D. Controlled experiments are a good source of evidence (4)
E. Disagreements are impossible to resolve when people are not clear about the reasons and evidence they are using (4)

A. Reasons fit together to support or deny a proposition


Rene Descartes (1596-1650, philosopher):
1. "Each problem that I solved became a rule, which served afterwards to solve other problems." (Discourse on Method, 1637)

Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970, philosopher):
2. "Verification in science is not, however, of single statements but of the entire system or a sub-system of statements." (The Unity of Science, 1934)

B. Sensory experience is the source of all evidence


David Hume (1711-1776, philosopher):
3. "I never can catch myself at anytime without a perception, and never can observe anything but the perception." (A Treatise on Human Nature, 1739)

John Locke (1632-1704, philosopher)
4. "No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience." (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1689)

C. It's impossible to 100% prove or disprove a proposition (except for a few absolute facts)


Rene Descartes (1596-1650, philosopher):
5. "In order to seek truth, it is necessary once in the course of our life, to doubt, as far as possible, of all things." (Principles of Philosophy, 1644)

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794, chemist):
6. "The art of concluding from experience and observation consists in evaluating probabilities, in estimating if they are high or numerous enough to constitute proof." (Rapport des commissaires charges par le roi de l'exemen du magnetism animal, 1784)

D. Controlled experiments are a good source of evidence


Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970, philosopher):
7. "One of the principal tasks of the logical analysis of a given proposition is to find out the method of verification for that proposition." (Philosophy and Logical Syntax, 1935)

Roger Bacon (1219-1292, philosopher):
8. "Experimental science is the queen of sciences, and the goal of all speculation." (Quoted in Science at the Medieval Universities by James Walsch)

Richard Feynman (1918-1988, physicist):
9. "...if you're doing an experiment, you should report everything that you think might make it invalid." (Adapted from a 1974 Caltech commencement address)

Claude Bernard (1813-1878, physiologist):
10. "Indeed, proof that a given condition always precedes or accompanies a phenomenon does not warrant concluding with certainty that a given condition is the immediate cause of that phenomenon. It must still be still established that when this condition is removed the phenomenon will no longer appear." (Introduction a l'Etude de la Medecine Experimental, 1865)

E. Disagreements are impossible to resolve when people are not clear about the reasons they are using


Francis Bacon (1561-1626, philosopher):
11. "Truth will sooner come out from error than from confusion." (Novum Organum, 1620)

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, philosopher):
12. "To convince someone of the truth, it is not enough to state it, but rather one must find the path from error to truth." (Philosophical Occasions, 1993 posthumous)

I. A. Richards (1893-1979, literary critic):
13. "Rhetoric, I shall urge, should be a study of misunderstanding and its remedies." (Philosophy of Rhetoric, 1964)

Jane Goodall (1934-now, primatologist):
14. "Especially now when views are becoming more polarized, we must work to understand each other across political, religious and national boundaries." (Quoted in Verge Magazine, 2010)

Sunday, October 15, 2017

What is art?

What is art? Here is my definition:
Art is an expression of imagination and/or ability
I believe that not all expressions are art. For example, if you ask for a glass of water, you are making an expression, but not creating art. Another example, if you say that the sky is blue, you are expressing something about the world, but that statement is also not art.

For an expression to become art, I believe it needs to either draw upon imagination and/or ability. Imagination is where our most creative thoughts exist, and whenever a person expresses these thoughts, I believe they are creating art. Also when a person demonstrates a talent or ability, I believe that is also art. In this regard, I believe that imagination and ability are two main sources for artistic inspiration.

License: CC BY-SA 4.0

Thursday, October 12, 2017

Fundamentals of language


Photo source: Wikimedia Commons, Arto Alanepass (Aadesig)
Photo license: CC BY-SA 4.0

This post is a collection of quotes about language. There are 16 quotes divided into 5 sections:

A. Every word corresponds to a concept (or multiple concepts) (3)
B. Language is almost always subjective to a degree (2)
C. Grammar enables multiple words to express a more complex meaning (3)
D. Ideas come long before the proper words to describe them (4)
E. Language is central to every branch of knowledge (4)

A. Every word corresponds to a concept (or multiple concepts)


Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, philosopher):
1. "Uttering a word is like striking a note on the keyboard of imagination." (Philosophical Investigations, posthumous 1963)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955, physicist):
2. "Concepts have meaning only if we can point to objects to which they refer and to rules by which they are assigned to these objects." (Ernst Mach Memorial Notice, 1916)

Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941, linguist):
3. "We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way." (Language, Thought and Reality, 1956)

B. Language is almost always subjective to a degree


Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951, philosopher):
4. "For remember that in general we don't use language according to strict rules; it hasn't been taught to us by means of strict rules either." (The Blue Book, posthumous)

John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960, philosopher):
5. "Faced with the nonsense question, 'what is the meaning of a word?' and perhaps dimly recognizing it to be nonsense, we are nevertheless not inclined to give it up." (Philosophical Papers, 1979)

C. Grammar enables multiple words to express a more complex meaning


Stanley Fish (1938-now, literary critic):
6. "Before the words slide into their slots, they are just discrete items pointing everywhere and nowhere." (How to Write a Sentence and How to Read One, 2011)

William Cobbet (1763-1835, journalist):
7. "Grammar, perfectly understood enables us, not only to express our meaning fully and clearly, but so to express it as to enable us to defy the ingenuity of man to give to our words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend them to express." (A Grammar of the English Language, 1818)

Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970, philosopher):
8. "By the logical syntax of language, we mean the formal theory of the linguistic forms of that language - the systematic statement of the formal rules which govern it together with the development of the consequences which follow from these rules." (Logical Syntax of Language, 1934)

D. Ideas come long before the proper words to express them


Marianne Moore (1887-1972, poet):
9. "I've always felt that if a thing had been said the best way, how can you say it better?" (Paris Review Interview, 1960)

Sallie McFague (1933-now, theologian):
10. "A metaphor is a word used in an unfamiliar context to give us a new insight; a good metaphor moves us to see our world in an extraordinary way." (Speaking in Parables, 1975)

Marlene Dietrich (1901-1992, actress):
11. "I love quotations because it is a joy to find thoughts one might have beautifully expressed with much authority by someone recognizably wiser than oneself." (Quoted in Presidential Wit and Wisdom by Brallier and Chabert)

John Searle (1932-now, philosopher):
12. "You cannot think clearly if you cannot speak and write clearly." (The Storm Over the University, 1990)

E. Language is central to every branch of knowledge


Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900, philosopher):
13. "We have seen how it is originally language which works on the construction of concepts, a labor taken over in later ages by science." (On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense, 1873)

Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002, biologist):
14. "The nature of true genius must lie in the elusive capacity to construct these new modes from apparent darkness." (The Flamingo's Smile, 1985)

Rachel Carson (1907-1964, biologist):
15. "If there is poetry in my book about the sea, it is not because I deliberately put it there, but because no one could write truthfully about the sea and leave out the poetry." (National Book Award for Nonfiction speech, 1952)

Felix Frankfurter (1882-1965, lawyer):
16. "All our work, our whole life is a matter of semantics, because words are the tools with which we work, the material of which laws are made, out of which the constitution was written. Everything depends on our understanding of them." (Quoted in Readers' Digest, 1964)

Monday, August 7, 2017

What is science? (first version)

 

Photo source: Wikimedia Commons, Claude Monet, View At Rouelles, Le Havre

(Update: I realize that there are some problems with my definition of science in this post. The revised version of this post can be found at this link: What is science?)

What is science? This is a very hard question. Many philosophers have tried to establish their own criteria to separate science from non-science. The problem with the word 'science' is everyone has their own internal idea of what this word should mean. Here is my definition:
Science is the systematic analysis of reality
This is not a precise definition because the word 'systematic' is subjective. One could even argue that all language and sentence structure is systematic therefore any statement could be considered scientific. Therefore, I believe drawing a strict boundary is impossible between science and knowledge. But I still think it's important to place meaning to the word 'science' because it articulates a particular type of knowledge. The concept of science is a real thing and deserves its own word.

Many people think that science has to do with proven facts. I disagree with this for two reasons. First, the word 'fact' creates too of high of a standard for what science is. I philosophically believe there are no proven facts (except the cogito). For example, you cannot be 100% be sure that the sun will come up tomorrow because there could be a supernova or black swan event. Second, science is more of a process than a finished product. By limiting science to only facts, a person in lab testing unproven theories is not doing science. Instead, we should think of science as trying to paint a detailed picture of reality.

Where does astrology fit into my definition? Astrology does not qualify as science because it is incompatible with much of the existing evidence we already know about reality. As long as an endeavor is oriented toward explaining reality in a systematic manner, I believe it qualifies as a science.

The rest of this post is a collection of definitions of science from philosophers. I agree most with the definitions provided by Paul Feyerabend and Larry Laudan.

Definitions of science from philosophers


Karl Popper (1902-1994)
1. "...statements or systems of statements, in order to be ranked as scientific, must be capable of conflicting with possible, or conceivable observations." (Conjectures and refutations. The growth of scientific knowledge, 1962)

Thomas Kuhn (1902-1996)
2. "...the role in scientific research of what I have since called 'paradigms'. These I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners." (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962)

Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994)
3. "...the separation of science and non-science is not only artificial but also detrimental to the advancement of knowledge. If we want to understand nature, if we want to master our physical surroundings, then we must use all ideas, all methods, and not just a small selection of them." (Against method, 1975)


Larry Laudan (1941-now)
4. "...there is no demarcation line between science and non-science, or between science and pseudo-science, which would win assent from a majority of philosophers. Nor is there one which should win acceptance from philosophers or anyone else." (The Demise of the Demarcation Problem, 1983)


Paul Thagard (1950-now):
5. "A theory of disciplines which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in the relation to others and is selective in considering confirmation and disconfirmation." (Quoted in Science Education by John Gilbert)

William Cecil Dampier (1867-1952)
6. "[Science is] ordered knowledge of phenomena and of the relations between them." (Wikipedia)

Marshall Clagett (1916-2005)
7. "[Science is] first the orderly and systematic comprehension, description and/or explanation of natural phenomena and secondly, the mathematical and logical tools necessary for the undertaking." (Wikipedia)

David Pingree (1933-2005)
8. "Science is a systematic explanation of perceived or imaginary phenomena or else is based on such an explanation. Mathematics finds a place in science only as one of the symbolical languages in which scientific explanations may be expressed." (Wikipedia)